Gender bias in medicine remains a pervasive and often overlooked issue that directly impacts the quality of care and health outcomes for both women and men. Historically, medical research, diagnostic tools, and treatment protocols have been designed with male bodies and symptoms as the default, resulting in disparities that disproportionately disadvantage women. At the same time, men face unique biases, often being underdiagnosed or undertreated in areas traditionally associated with women’s health.

From heart disease and pain management to mental health and osteoporosis, these biases shape how symptoms are interpreted, conditions are diagnosed, and treatments are prescribed. Understanding and addressing these systemic inequities is critical to improving healthcare for all. In the following sections, we explore 50 well-documented examples of gender bias in medicine—highlighting how these disparities arise, why they persist, and what can be done to create a more equitable healthcare system.

1. Heart Disease is Underdiagnosed in Women

Heart disease remains the leading cause of death for women, yet it continues to be underdiagnosed and undertreated. Research has consistently shown that women are less likely to be evaluated for cardiovascular disease, even when they present with clear symptoms. According to the American Heart Association, women are often not perceived to be at high risk for heart disease, leading healthcare providers to underestimate the severity of their symptoms (American Heart Association, 2021).

This disparity is compounded by the fact that women’s heart attack symptoms frequently differ from men’s. While men typically report chest pain, women are more likely to experience fatigue, nausea, jaw pain, or shortness of breath—symptoms that are often misattributed to less serious conditions like anxiety or indigestion. Additionally, much of the existing research and clinical guidelines have been based predominantly on male participants, which results in a lack of understanding about how heart disease manifests in women.

This male-centered approach to cardiovascular research and diagnosis perpetuates systemic biases, delaying critical interventions for women and contributing to higher mortality rates. Addressing this issue requires increasing awareness among healthcare providers and ensuring more inclusive clinical research that reflects sex differences in symptom presentation (American Heart Association, 2021).

2. Women Receive Less Pain Medication Than Men

Women have long been reported to receive less pain medication than men, despite experiencing more frequent and chronic pain conditions. A comprehensive study published by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) reveals that women’s reports of pain are often taken less seriously by healthcare providers, who may perceive women as being overly emotional or exaggerating their symptoms (NIH, 2019).

This pervasive stereotype—sometimes referred to as the “hysteria bias”—traces back to historical views of women as more emotional and less rational. As a result, women’s pain is more likely to be dismissed or attributed to psychological causes rather than treated as a legitimate physical condition. Furthermore, medical education and research have historically been male-focused, resulting in a knowledge gap when it comes to understanding and managing pain in female patients. Studies show that when women seek care for conditions like chronic pelvic pain, migraines, or fibromyalgia, they often face skepticism and delays in treatment.

This under-treatment of pain not only undermines women’s trust in the healthcare system but also leads to poorer health outcomes. Addressing this bias requires greater awareness, training, and standardized pain management protocols that account for gender disparities (NIH, 2019).

3. Women’s Heart Attack Symptoms Are Dismissed

Women experiencing heart attacks often face significant delays in diagnosis and treatment compared to men. A study published in the British Medical Journal (BMJ) highlights that women are 50% more likely to be misdiagnosed following a heart attack, resulting in critical delays that can lead to worse outcomes or death (BMJ, 2019). One major reason for this disparity is the lack of recognition that women frequently present with atypical heart attack symptoms—such as nausea, dizziness, fatigue, and back pain—instead of the classic chest pain more commonly seen in men. Medical training and public awareness campaigns have traditionally emphasized male-centered heart attack symptoms, leading to a diagnostic bias among healthcare providers.

Moreover, when women describe their symptoms, they are often perceived as less credible or are misdiagnosed with anxiety or gastrointestinal issues. This misinterpretation can prevent women from receiving lifesaving interventions like angioplasty or clot-busting medications in time. Additionally, many diagnostic tools and risk prediction models are calibrated primarily on male data, which further disadvantages female patients. Correcting this bias involves educating providers about sex-specific symptoms and ensuring that women’s reports of their experiences are taken seriously (BMJ, 2019).

4. Endometriosis Is Underdiagnosed and Misunderstood

Endometriosis affects approximately 1 in 10 women of reproductive age, yet it often takes years—sometimes over a decade—for patients to receive an accurate diagnosis. According to Endometriosis UK, the average time to diagnosis is 7.5 years (Endometriosis UK, 2023). This delay stems from a pervasive medical bias that normalizes severe menstrual pain, leading healthcare providers to dismiss or minimize women’s complaints as “just bad periods.” Additionally, the lack of awareness and education about endometriosis among general practitioners contributes to underrecognition.

Many healthcare professionals are not trained to recognize the broad range of symptoms associated with the disease, which can include chronic pelvic pain, infertility, gastrointestinal issues, and fatigue. Historically, gynecological health has been marginalized in medical research, resulting in limited understanding and few non-invasive diagnostic tools.

The gold standard for diagnosis—laparoscopy—is invasive and often delayed. Gender stereotypes also play a role, as women are frequently socialized to tolerate pain without complaint, and their reports of suffering are sometimes viewed as exaggerated or psychosomatic. This medical gaslighting further delays diagnosis and treatment. To address this bias, there is a need for better education, research investment, and validation of women’s pain experiences in clinical practice (Endometriosis UK, 2023).

5. Women Are Less Likely to Be Referred for Cardiac Catheterization

When women present with signs of coronary artery disease, they are less likely than men to be referred for cardiac catheterization, an important diagnostic and interventional procedure. Research published in the Journal of the American College of Cardiology shows that even when women exhibit symptoms indicative of ischemic heart disease, they are referred for invasive diagnostic procedures at lower rates than men (JACC, 2016).

This disparity arises in part from a long-standing misconception that women are less prone to coronary artery disease, despite cardiovascular disease being the leading cause of death among women. Additionally, women’s symptoms of ischemia often differ from the male-centric model of chest pain, making their cases less likely to be recognized as needing invasive evaluation. Implicit gender biases may also lead some healthcare providers to perceive women as poorer candidates for intervention or to minimize their risk. The underutilization of catheterization in women can result in missed opportunities for early detection and treatment, leading to higher rates of complications and mortality.

Correcting this bias requires clinician education about the unique presentations of heart disease in women and the implementation of standardized guidelines that promote equitable referral practices (JACC, 2016).

6. Osteoporosis Underdiagnosed in Men

Osteoporosis is commonly perceived as a women’s health issue, which results in the underdiagnosis and undertreatment of the disease in men. The National Osteoporosis Foundation reports that although 1 in 4 men over the age of 50 will experience an osteoporosis-related fracture, men are significantly less likely to be screened or treated for the condition (NOF, 2021). This bias is largely due to the traditional framing of osteoporosis as predominantly affecting postmenopausal women. As a result, both healthcare providers and male patients often underestimate the risk of bone loss in men, despite evidence showing that men experience higher mortality rates following osteoporotic fractures than women.

Additionally, men are less frequently included in osteoporosis research, leading to gaps in knowledge about the disease’s progression and optimal treatments in male patients. Screening guidelines typically prioritize women, meaning men at risk—such as those with a history of fractures, steroid use, or chronic illnesses—may be overlooked. Cultural norms also play a role, with societal expectations discouraging men from seeking preventative care.

Addressing this bias requires more inclusive screening policies, increased public awareness, and targeted education for healthcare providers to ensure early diagnosis and intervention for men at risk of osteoporosis (NOF, 2021).

7. Depression is Underdiagnosed in Men

Depression is one of the most common mental health conditions worldwide, but men are significantly underdiagnosed compared to women. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reports that while women are statistically more likely to be diagnosed with depression, men are less likely to be diagnosed despite experiencing high rates of suicide and substance abuse linked to untreated depression (CDC, 2017). One major reason for this disparity is that traditional diagnostic criteria for depression emphasize symptoms more commonly reported by women, such as sadness and crying, while overlooking how depression often manifests in men—as irritability, anger, risk-taking behavior, or substance misuse.

Additionally, societal norms and cultural expectations discourage men from acknowledging emotional distress, leading many to avoid seeking help altogether. When men do present with symptoms, healthcare providers may misinterpret or minimize them, attributing their behavior to personality traits or external stress rather than an underlying mood disorder.

This underdiagnosis results in fewer men receiving appropriate mental health care, increasing their risk for severe outcomes, including suicide. Addressing this bias requires expanding the understanding of how depression presents in men, adapting screening tools, and creating environments where men feel safe discussing their mental health (CDC, 2017).

8. Autism Diagnosed Later in Females

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is frequently diagnosed later in females compared to males, often resulting in delayed support and intervention. A study published in the Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders highlights that diagnostic criteria for ASD have been historically based on male presentations, leading to underdiagnosis or misdiagnosis in girls and women (Rivet & Matson, 2011). Females with autism often display different behavioral characteristics than males; they may mask symptoms by mimicking social behaviors or internalizing their difficulties, presenting as shy or anxious rather than exhibiting the more overt behaviors typically associated with autism.

This phenomenon, known as “social camouflaging,” can make it harder for clinicians to recognize ASD in females. Additionally, girls are less likely to display repetitive behaviors or restricted interests in the stereotypical ways outlined in diagnostic manuals, leading to misinterpretation by healthcare professionals.

The bias also extends to research, where historically fewer females have been included in autism studies. As a result, girls with autism are often overlooked until later in life, when social demands increase and coping strategies fail. Addressing this disparity requires revising diagnostic tools, training professionals to recognize female presentations of autism, and increasing research that includes female participants (Rivet & Matson, 2011).

9. ADHD Underdiagnosed in Girls

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is one of the most commonly diagnosed neurodevelopmental disorders in children, but girls are frequently underdiagnosed compared to boys. According to the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), boys are more than twice as likely to be diagnosed with ADHD, even though research suggests the disorder affects both genders at similar rates (NIMH, 2021).

This discrepancy arises because the diagnostic criteria and public perception of ADHD focus on hyperactive and disruptive behaviors, which are more commonly seen in boys. In contrast, girls with ADHD are more likely to exhibit inattentive symptoms—such as difficulty focusing, forgetfulness, and daydreaming—which are less disruptive in classroom settings and therefore less likely to be recognized as problematic. Additionally, girls often develop coping strategies to mask their symptoms, further complicating the diagnostic process. Social expectations for girls to be compliant and well-behaved can also lead educators and healthcare providers to overlook or minimize their struggles.

This underdiagnosis results in fewer girls receiving early intervention and support, contributing to academic, emotional, and social difficulties later in life. Addressing this bias requires greater awareness of how ADHD presents in girls and adapting diagnostic approaches to capture these differences (NIMH, 2021).

10. Women Are More Likely to Be Diagnosed with Mental Illness Over Physical Illness

Women frequently face misdiagnosis of physical symptoms as psychiatric conditions. According to the Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics, healthcare providers are more likely to attribute women’s physical health complaints to psychological causes, resulting in delayed or missed diagnoses of serious medical conditions (Hamberg, 2008). This phenomenon, often referred to as “diagnostic overshadowing,” occurs when a clinician’s perception of a patient’s emotional state influences the assessment of their physical symptoms. For example, chest pain in women may be dismissed as anxiety rather than investigated for potential cardiac causes, even though heart disease is the leading cause of death among women.

The historical stereotype that women are “emotional” or “hysterical” perpetuates this bias, leading to the trivialization of their complaints. Women who advocate strongly for themselves may even be labeled as difficult or noncompliant, further undermining their credibility in clinical settings. This bias has dangerous consequences: it delays diagnoses, reduces access to appropriate treatments, and diminishes trust in the healthcare system.

Addressing this issue requires healthcare professionals to be aware of gender-based assumptions and to apply consistent diagnostic rigor regardless of the patient’s gender. Increased training and education are essential to combat this bias (Hamberg, 2008).

• Source: Hamberg, K. (2008). Gender Bias in Medicine. Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics, 36(3), 487-496. DOI

11. Less Funding for Female Health Research

Historically, medical research has disproportionately focused on male subjects, resulting in significant gaps in understanding female health. The National Institutes of Health (NIH) acknowledges that for decades, women were systematically excluded from clinical trials due to concerns about hormonal fluctuations, pregnancy risk, and perceived complexity (NIH, 2015). This exclusion has led to less funding and fewer studies dedicated specifically to women’s health conditions, such as endometriosis, autoimmune diseases, and cardiovascular disease.

Even when women are included in research, sex-specific data is often not analyzed or reported. The consequence is that diagnostic criteria, treatments, and medication dosing are frequently based on male physiology, which may not accurately reflect women’s experiences. This gender bias in funding and research design perpetuates disparities in healthcare outcomes for women. For example, heart disease symptoms in women are less recognized because much of the foundational research has centered on male presentations. Correcting this bias requires targeted funding initiatives to prioritize female health issues and mandates for sex-disaggregated data in clinical research.

The NIH now requires that sex as a biological variable be factored into grant proposals, but enforcement and comprehensive integration remain ongoing challenges (NIH, 2015).

• Source: National Institutes of Health (NIH). (2015). NIH Issues Policy to Ensure Sex Balance in Research.

12. Sex Differences Ignored in Clinical Trials

For much of modern medical history, clinical trials were conducted primarily on male participants, with results generalized to both sexes. According to The Lancet, this exclusion has led to significant gaps in understanding how diseases and treatments affect women differently (Criado-Perez, 2020). The rationale for excluding women often included concerns about hormonal fluctuations and the risk of pregnancy, which researchers believed could complicate study results.

However, this exclusion ignores critical biological differences in drug metabolism, immune response, and disease progression between sexes. As a result, medications can have different efficacy and side effect profiles in women, yet dosing recommendations are typically based on data derived from male subjects. One notable example is the sleep aid zolpidem (Ambien), which was later found to require a lower dose for women due to differences in drug clearance rates.

Failing to consider sex differences in clinical trials leads to suboptimal treatment and increased risks for women. Addressing this requires not only the inclusion of women in studies but also rigorous analysis and reporting of sex-specific outcomes. Regulatory bodies and funding agencies are beginning to enforce these standards, but significant gaps remain (Criado-Perez, 2020).

• Source: Criado-Perez, C. (2020). Invisible Women: Exposing Data Bias in a World Designed for Men. The Lancet, 395(10226), 740-741

13. Women Wait Longer in Emergency Rooms

Studies have consistently shown that women experience longer wait times than men in emergency departments, particularly when presenting with pain. Research published in Academic Emergency Medicine revealed that women are not only less likely to be classified as high-urgency cases, but they also wait longer to receive treatment and pain relief (Chamberlain et al., 2013).

For example, when men and women report similar levels of abdominal pain, women wait significantly longer for evaluation and are less likely to receive appropriate analgesia. One contributing factor to this disparity is the pervasive bias that women’s complaints are more likely to be emotional or exaggerated, particularly when related to pain. As a result, their symptoms are often deprioritized in triage assessments.

Additionally, the traditional view that women are more “pain tolerant” can lead clinicians to underestimate the severity of their conditions. The normalization of women’s pain, especially related to gynecological or abdominal symptoms, further delays the recognition of serious conditions such as appendicitis or ectopic pregnancy. Addressing this issue requires revising triage protocols to minimize subjective assessments and improve objective evaluations, along with educating healthcare providers about gender biases in pain perception and treatment (Chamberlain et al., 2013).

• Source: Chamberlain, J. M., et al. (2013). Gender Disparities in the Management of Pain in the Emergency Department. Academic Emergency Medicine, 20(9), 889-896.

14. Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Dismissed in Women

Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (CFS), also known as Myalgic Encephalomyelitis (ME), is a debilitating illness that affects more women than men. However, women frequently face skepticism and dismissal when they report symptoms of extreme fatigue, cognitive dysfunction, and chronic pain.

According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), CFS is underdiagnosed, particularly among women, due to a lack of definitive diagnostic tests and persistent stigma within the medical community (CDC, 2021). Historically, fatigue and related symptoms have been minimized as psychological or stress-related, especially in women.

As a result, many women are misdiagnosed with depression, anxiety, or somatic symptom disorder, rather than receiving an appropriate evaluation for CFS. The historical perception of women as being more “emotionally fragile” or prone to psychosomatic illness exacerbates this diagnostic bias. The lack of funding and research into CFS has further contributed to the medical community’s limited understanding of the condition. This dismissal delays diagnosis and appropriate management, leaving many women without the support or treatment they need.

Addressing these disparities requires more research into the pathophysiology of CFS and a shift in clinical attitudes that validate the experiences of women with unexplained chronic illnesses (CDC, 2021).

• Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2021). About Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (ME/CFS).

15. PCOS Often Goes Undiagnosed

Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS) is one of the most common endocrine disorders among women of reproductive age, affecting up to 10% of women worldwide. Despite its prevalence, PCOS is frequently undiagnosed or misdiagnosed, often because its symptoms are dismissed or attributed to lifestyle factors. The National Institutes of Health (NIH) notes that PCOS can present with a variety of symptoms, including irregular periods, infertility, weight gain, acne, and excessive hair growth, which can vary widely between individuals (NIH, 2021).

This variability, combined with a general lack of awareness among healthcare providers, contributes to delayed diagnosis—sometimes by years. Additionally, societal stigmas surrounding women’s reproductive health and body weight can lead to healthcare professionals attributing symptoms to poor diet or lack of exercise rather than considering an underlying hormonal disorder. The fragmented approach to women’s health, where gynecological symptoms are treated separately from metabolic issues, often results in incomplete assessments.

Many women are left untreated, increasing their risk for long-term complications like type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and infertility. Increased provider education, standardized diagnostic criteria, and a more holistic view of women’s health are needed to reduce diagnostic delays and improve outcomes for women with PCOS (NIH, 2021).

• Source: National Institutes of Health (NIH). (2021). What is PCOS?

16. Male Breast Cancer is Underrecognized

Breast cancer is often perceived as a disease that exclusively affects women, leading to underrecognition, delayed diagnosis, and poorer outcomes in men. According to the American Cancer Society, male breast cancer accounts for less than 1% of all breast cancer cases, but men are often diagnosed at later stages when the disease has progressed (American Cancer Society, 2021). The prevailing misconception that breast cancer is a “women’s disease” results in lower awareness among men regarding their risk factors and symptoms.

As a result, men may ignore early signs such as lumps or changes in the nipple, and healthcare providers may initially misattribute these symptoms to benign conditions like gynecomastia or infections. The lack of routine screening recommendations for men further contributes to delayed detection. In addition, much of breast cancer research focuses on women, leaving gaps in knowledge about how the disease behaves in male patients.

Addressing this bias requires increasing public and professional awareness that breast cancer can affect men and developing guidelines for earlier detection and treatment. Tailored education campaigns aimed at men, particularly those with a family history of breast cancer or BRCA gene mutations, are crucial for improving outcomes (American Cancer Society, 2021).

• Source: American Cancer Society. (2021). Breast Cancer in Men.

17. Women Less Likely to Receive CPR in Public

Women are less likely than men to receive cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) from bystanders during cardiac arrest in public settings. A study published in the Journal of the American Heart Association found that women are 27% less likely to receive bystander CPR in public compared to men, contributing to lower survival rates (Blewer et al., 2018). One key reason for this disparity is the fear among bystanders of being accused of inappropriate touching when providing chest compressions on women. Concerns about exposing or damaging women’s bodies during CPR also deter potential rescuers.

Additionally, there is a widespread misconception that women are less likely to experience cardiac arrest, despite the fact that heart disease is the leading cause of death for both sexes. This belief can delay recognition of cardiac arrest in women, further reducing the likelihood of timely intervention. CPR training often uses male mannequins, contributing to unconscious biases that make rescuers less confident about performing the procedure on women.

Addressing this bias requires public education campaigns that emphasize the importance of providing CPR to everyone regardless of gender, updating CPR training to include female mannequins, and reducing stigma around performing life-saving measures on women (Blewer et al., 2018).

• Source: Blewer, E. A., et al. (2018). Gender Disparities in Bystander CPR in Public Settings. Journal of the American Heart Association, 7(8), e010005.

18. Autoimmune Diseases More Prevalent but Underresearched in Women

Autoimmune diseases disproportionately affect women, with nearly 80% of patients being female. Despite this high prevalence, autoimmune conditions are underresearched and often poorly understood. According to the National Institutes of Health (NIH), autoimmune diseases strike women three times more often than men, yet much of the research has historically focused on male biology (NIH, 2019).

One reason for this disparity is the tendency in biomedical research to use male animals and cells, under the assumption that they provide a “simpler” model by eliminating variables like hormonal fluctuations. This exclusion has delayed our understanding of how autoimmune diseases specifically affect women and has limited the development of targeted treatments. Additionally, symptoms of autoimmune conditions are often nonspecific—such as fatigue, joint pain, and general malaise—which can be dismissed by healthcare providers as psychosomatic or stress-related in female patients.

The intersection of gender bias and the complex presentation of autoimmune diseases leads to delays in diagnosis and treatment. To address these issues, research must include sex-specific analysis and consider hormonal and genetic factors unique to women. Expanding education and awareness among healthcare professionals is also crucial to improve recognition and care (NIH, 2019).

• Source: National Institutes of Health (NIH). (2019). Autoimmune Diseases Strike Women 3 Times More Than Men.

19. Alzheimer’s Disease in Women Less Studied

Women make up nearly two-thirds of all Americans living with Alzheimer’s disease, yet they remain underrepresented in Alzheimer’s research. According to the Alzheimer’s Association, this disparity is not only due to women living longer—although longevity does play a role—but also biological and genetic factors that make women more susceptible to the disease (Alzheimer’s Association, 2021). Despite these known differences, much of the research into Alzheimer’s disease has traditionally focused on men or has failed to disaggregate data by sex.

For example, studies on risk factors, diagnostic criteria, and treatment effectiveness often overlook how hormonal changes during menopause may contribute to disease progression in women. This lack of focus delays the development of sex-specific diagnostic tools and therapies. Additionally, women’s early symptoms—such as language and memory difficulties—may be dismissed as normal aging or stress, further delaying diagnosis and intervention.

Addressing these disparities requires increased investment in research that specifically examines how Alzheimer’s manifests in women and how their treatment responses may differ. Tailoring prevention strategies and treatments based on sex-specific research will be essential to improve outcomes for women living with Alzheimer’s disease (Alzheimer’s Association, 2021).

• Source: Alzheimer’s Association. (2021). Alzheimer’s Disease Facts and Figures.

20. Male Infertility Research Is Scarce

While infertility is commonly portrayed as a women’s health issue, male factors contribute to approximately 40-50% of infertility cases. Despite this, male infertility remains significantly under-researched. A study published by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) highlights the substantial knowledge gap, noting that the majority of fertility research, diagnosis, and treatment focuses on female bodies, often subjecting women to invasive procedures even when male infertility is the primary concern (Agarwal et al., 2018). This bias stems from historical and cultural perceptions that link fertility to female health and overlook men’s role in reproductive outcomes.

Furthermore, societal stigma around male infertility, often perceived as a threat to masculinity, discourages open discussion and research prioritization. There is also a lack of standardized diagnostic protocols for assessing male fertility, resulting in inconsistent evaluations and treatment strategies. As a consequence, men with infertility may receive limited attention and support, reducing the chances of successful treatment.

To address these gaps, there must be a concerted effort to prioritize male reproductive health research, develop standardized diagnostic criteria, and foster public awareness that infertility is a shared concern between partners (Agarwal et al., 2018).

• Source: Agarwal, A., Mulgund, A., Hamada, A., & Chyatte, M. R. (2018). A unique view on male infertility around the globe. Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology, 13, 37.

21. Women Receive Fewer Joint Replacements

Women experience osteoarthritis more frequently and report more severe pain and functional limitations than men, yet they are less likely to undergo joint replacement surgeries. According to the Arthritis Foundation, although women make up the majority of osteoarthritis sufferers, they are underrepresented among recipients of total joint arthroplasty, such as knee and hip replacements (Arthritis Foundation, 2021). Several factors contribute to this disparity.

First, women are often socialized to minimize their pain and delay seeking surgical interventions. Second, there is evidence of provider bias in referral patterns, with some physicians perceiving women as less suitable candidates for surgery due to concerns about recovery outcomes or comorbid conditions. Additionally, studies show that women frequently present with more advanced joint deterioration by the time they are referred for surgery, suggesting delayed or less aggressive treatment recommendations. As a result, women often suffer from prolonged disability and reduced quality of life.

Addressing these issues requires educating healthcare providers about gender biases in surgical referral practices, improving patient education about the benefits of early surgical intervention, and ensuring equitable access to orthopedic care for women (Arthritis Foundation, 2021).

• Source: Arthritis Foundation. (2021). Arthritis and Women: What You Need to Know.

22. Irritable Bowel Syndrome Often Dismissed in Women

Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS) is a chronic gastrointestinal disorder that disproportionately affects women. Despite its prevalence, women’s reports of IBS symptoms are frequently dismissed or misattributed to psychological causes. The National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK) acknowledges that women are more likely to be diagnosed with IBS than men, yet they also encounter significant delays in diagnosis and treatment because their symptoms are often minimized (NIDDK, 2017).

Historically, gastrointestinal symptoms in women have been trivialized, with many healthcare providers attributing them to stress, anxiety, or even menstruation, rather than investigating underlying physiological causes. Gender biases reinforce the stereotype that women are more prone to somatic complaints, which can lead to a lack of thorough diagnostic testing. Additionally, because IBS is a functional disorder with no visible markers in routine diagnostic tests, skepticism around women’s symptom reports can further delay care.

This dismissal impacts the quality of life, as untreated IBS can cause severe discomfort, dietary restrictions, and social isolation. Addressing this gender disparity requires greater awareness among healthcare professionals of how IBS presents in women and a commitment to taking their symptoms seriously from the outset (NIDDK, 2017).

• Source: National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK). (2017). Irritable Bowel Syndrome.

23. Women Face Higher Rates of Medical Gaslighting

Medical gaslighting refers to the phenomenon where a healthcare provider dismisses or trivializes a patient’s symptoms, causing them to question their own experiences and delaying accurate diagnosis or treatment. Women are disproportionately affected by this behavior, particularly when presenting with chronic pain, fatigue, or complex, hard-to-diagnose conditions.

An article published by The New York Times highlights numerous stories of women who reported being dismissed, told their symptoms were “all in their heads,” or misdiagnosed with anxiety or depression when serious underlying conditions were present (Rubin, 2022). One major factor contributing to medical gaslighting is the persistence of gender stereotypes that portray women as overly emotional or prone to exaggeration.

Additionally, systemic biases within healthcare often prioritize objective diagnostic findings over patient-reported symptoms, which disadvantages women whose conditions, like fibromyalgia or chronic fatigue syndrome, lack clear biomarkers.

This dynamic not only undermines women’s confidence in their health perceptions but can lead to significant delays in receiving appropriate care. Addressing medical gaslighting requires educating healthcare providers on the importance of listening to and validating patient experiences, adopting more patient-centered communication, and increasing research on conditions that disproportionately affect women (Rubin, 2022).

• Source: Rubin, R. (2022). Women Are Calling Out ‘Medical Gaslighting.’ The New York Times.

24. Men Less Likely to Seek Mental Health Support

Men are significantly less likely to seek mental health support compared to women, despite experiencing comparable rates of mental health issues like depression, anxiety, and substance use disorders. Mental Health America reports that men are less likely to receive mental health treatment and are more likely to die by suicide, reflecting a serious gap in care (MHA, 2021). Social and cultural norms that equate masculinity with emotional stoicism discourage men from acknowledging emotional distress or asking for help.

The stigma surrounding men’s mental health is perpetuated by expectations that men should be self-reliant, resilient, and unemotional, making it harder for them to express vulnerability or seek treatment. When men do present for care, healthcare providers may underrecognize symptoms of depression, which in men often manifests as irritability, anger, or risk-taking behavior rather than sadness or crying.

This contributes to lower diagnosis rates and missed opportunities for intervention. Addressing this disparity requires public health campaigns that challenge traditional gender roles and encourage men to prioritize their mental health. Additionally, healthcare professionals need training to recognize and appropriately respond to how mental health conditions uniquely present in male patients (MHA, 2021).

• Source: Mental Health America (MHA). (2021). Mental Health and Men.

25. Women’s Voices Less Trusted in Medical Consultations

Women often report feeling dismissed or ignored during medical consultations, with research showing they are more frequently interrupted by healthcare providers compared to men. A study published in the Journal of General Internal Medicine found that physicians were more likely to interrupt female patients earlier in the consultation process than their male counterparts, limiting women’s ability to fully describe their symptoms (Rhoades et al., 2001). This lack of attentiveness can contribute to incomplete patient histories, misdiagnoses, and suboptimal treatment plans.

One reason for this disparity lies in deep-rooted gender biases that perceive men as more authoritative and credible while viewing women’s communication as overly detailed or emotional. These biases can lead to clinicians making premature judgments or underestimating the severity of women’s symptoms. Women may also be perceived as less medically literate, causing providers to offer less information about their health conditions and treatment options.

The result is not only reduced patient satisfaction but also potential health risks due to miscommunication or lack of informed consent. Addressing this issue requires training clinicians in patient-centered communication and fostering awareness of implicit gender biases that affect the physician-patient dynamic (Rhoades et al., 2001).

• Source: Rhoades, D. R., McFarland, K. F., Finch, W. H., & Johnson, A. O. (2001). Speaking and interruptions during primary care office visits. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 16(9), 623-627.

26. Pain Conditions Like Fibromyalgia Dismissed in Women

Fibromyalgia is a chronic pain disorder that disproportionately affects women, with estimates suggesting up to 80-90% of those diagnosed are female. Despite its prevalence, fibromyalgia is frequently dismissed by healthcare providers as psychosomatic or stress-related rather than recognized as a legitimate medical condition.

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) acknowledges that fibromyalgia is underdiagnosed and misunderstood, with many patients facing skepticism from their doctors (CDC, 2020). One key factor contributing to this dismissal is the lack of objective diagnostic tests; fibromyalgia is diagnosed based on subjective reports of widespread pain, fatigue, and cognitive difficulties.

Historically, gender biases have led to the perception that women are more prone to emotional or exaggerated health complaints, reinforcing the stigma around fibromyalgia as a “woman’s illness” without a physical basis. Additionally, medical education often provides limited training on chronic pain syndromes like fibromyalgia, contributing to gaps in understanding and management. This dismissal not only delays treatment but can also increase psychological distress in patients who feel invalidated. Improving outcomes requires educating healthcare providers on the complex neurobiological mechanisms behind fibromyalgia and promoting a more empathetic, patient-centered approach to chronic pain management (CDC, 2020).

• Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2020). Fibromyalgia.

27. Men Less Likely to Receive Osteoporosis Screening

Osteoporosis is widely perceived as a disease that primarily affects women, particularly postmenopausal women. However, men account for up to 25% of all osteoporosis-related fractures. Despite this, men are significantly less likely to be screened for osteoporosis or referred for bone mineral density testing.

The Endocrine Society reports that men at high risk for osteoporosis—such as those over age 70, or those who have experienced fractures or use long-term corticosteroids—are routinely overlooked (Watts et al., 2012). This disparity is partly due to outdated stereotypes that frame osteoporosis as a “woman’s disease,” leading to under-recognition of the condition in men by both healthcare providers and patients themselves.

Additionally, men are less frequently included in osteoporosis research studies, resulting in fewer clinical guidelines and targeted prevention strategies tailored to male patients. The consequences of underdiagnosis in men are significant; fractures in men often lead to higher mortality rates than in women.

To address this gap, screening guidelines must be expanded to emphasize osteoporosis risk in men, and public health campaigns should work to dispel the misconception that osteoporosis is exclusive to women (Watts et al., 2012).

• Source: Watts, N. B., et al. (2012). Osteoporosis in men: An Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 97(6), 1802-1822.

28. Men Underdiagnosed for Eating Disorders

Eating disorders have long been stereotyped as illnesses that predominantly affect women, leading to significant underdiagnosis and under-treatment of these conditions in men. According to the National Eating Disorders Association (NEDA), approximately one in three people struggling with an eating disorder is male, yet men are far less likely to be diagnosed or to seek treatment (NEDA, 2021). Several factors contribute to this disparity.

First, diagnostic criteria and screening tools were historically developed with female presentations in mind, focusing on thinness and weight loss as key indicators. Men, however, may experience different concerns, such as a desire for muscularity (muscle dysmorphia), which traditional assessments often fail to capture.

Second, societal stigma around eating disorders being a “women’s issue” can discourage men from seeking help, as doing so might be perceived as undermining traditional masculine ideals. Additionally, healthcare providers may be less attuned to recognizing disordered eating behaviors in men, leading to missed diagnoses.

As a result, men frequently go untreated, increasing the risk for serious health complications, including cardiac issues, osteoporosis, and psychological distress. Addressing these gaps requires inclusive diagnostic criteria, public education campaigns targeting men, and training for healthcare providers to recognize eating disorders in all genders (NEDA, 2021).

• Source: National Eating Disorders Association (NEDA). (2021). Eating Disorders in Males.

29. Women with HIV Face Greater Stigma

Women living with HIV often encounter heightened stigma compared to men, which affects their access to diagnosis, treatment, and support services. According to UNAIDS, women—especially those from marginalized communities—experience discrimination not only from society but also within healthcare systems, where they may be blamed for their illness or judged for their sexual behavior (UNAIDS, 2021). Gender-based violence, economic dependence, and limited access to education further exacerbate women’s vulnerability to both HIV infection and stigma.

In many regions, cultural norms impose stricter moral expectations on women regarding sexuality, leading to harsher social consequences for women who are HIV-positive. Stigma can discourage women from seeking testing or treatment for fear of disclosure and social rejection, resulting in delayed care and poorer health outcomes.

Additionally, healthcare providers may consciously or unconsciously treat HIV-positive women differently, reducing the quality of care they receive. UNAIDS highlights the need for gender-sensitive HIV services that address the specific challenges women face and promote equitable access to prevention, diagnosis, and treatment. Empowering women with education, economic opportunities, and legal protections can also help reduce the stigma surrounding HIV (UNAIDS, 2021).

• Source: UNAIDS. (2021). HIV and Women.

30. Men Less Likely to Receive Domestic Violence Screening

Domestic violence screening in healthcare settings is often targeted primarily at women, leading to the underrecognition of male victims. According to the National Coalition Against Domestic Violence (NCADV), 1 in 4 men have experienced some form of physical violence, sexual violence, or stalking by an intimate partner during their lifetime (NCADV, 2020).

Despite these statistics, male victims are less likely to be screened, identified, or offered support services. This disparity is driven by societal assumptions that men are less likely to be victims of intimate partner violence (IPV), coupled with traditional views of masculinity that discourage men from disclosing abuse. Men who do report IPV often encounter disbelief or minimization from healthcare providers and law enforcement, reinforcing feelings of shame and isolation.

Additionally, there are fewer resources such as shelters, counseling services, and hotlines specifically designed to support male survivors. To address this bias, healthcare providers need training to recognize signs of IPV in men and to offer screenings in a way that encourages disclosure. Expanding support services and public awareness campaigns that acknowledge men as potential victims of domestic violence are also essential for closing this gap (NCADV, 2020).

• Source: National Coalition Against Domestic Violence (NCADV). (2020). Domestic Violence and Men.

31. Men Less Likely to Get HPV Vaccination

Human Papillomavirus (HPV) vaccination campaigns have historically focused on preventing cervical cancer in women, resulting in lower vaccination rates among men. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) notes that while HPV can lead to a variety of cancers in both sexes—including throat, anal, and penile cancers in men—male vaccination rates remain significantly lower than those of females (CDC, 2021). This disparity stems from the initial rollout of the HPV vaccine, which targeted adolescent girls to prevent cervical cancer. As a result, many people, including healthcare providers, continue to associate HPV primarily with women’s health. Men, who are often not perceived as being at risk, may not be offered the vaccine during routine healthcare visits. Additionally, there is less public education aimed at men about the risks of HPV-related diseases and the protective benefits of vaccination.

The under-vaccination of men not only puts them at risk for HPV-related cancers but also perpetuates the spread of the virus. To address this issue, public health campaigns need to emphasize that HPV affects everyone, and healthcare providers should routinely recommend vaccination for boys and men as well as girls and women (CDC, 2021).

• Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2021). HPV Vaccine Recommendations.

32. Women Underrepresented in Neuroscience Research

Despite significant differences in the prevalence and presentation of neurological conditions between men and women, women have historically been underrepresented in neuroscience research. An article published in Nature Reviews Neurology highlights that many neuroscience studies continue to rely predominantly on male subjects, both in human and animal research models (Shansky & Woolley, 2016). One reason for this bias is the perception that female hormonal cycles introduce variability that complicates experimental design and interpretation.

As a result, researchers often default to male subjects to reduce complexity, despite evidence that sex hormones can play a crucial role in brain function and disease. This exclusion limits understanding of sex-specific mechanisms underlying neurological conditions like Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, multiple sclerosis, and depression—all of which have different prevalence rates and disease courses in women compared to men.

The lack of sex-disaggregated data in neuroscience research also hampers the development of tailored treatments for women. Addressing this gender bias requires mandating the inclusion of both sexes in neuroscience research, analyzing results by sex, and funding studies specifically aimed at understanding neurological diseases in women (Shansky & Woolley, 2016).

• Source: Shansky, R. M., & Woolley, C. S. (2016). Considering sex as a biological variable will be valuable for neuroscience research. Nature Reviews Neurology, 12(8), 456-457.

33. Men Less Likely to Be Diagnosed with Osteoarthritis

Osteoarthritis (OA) is commonly viewed as a condition that disproportionately affects women, particularly postmenopausal women. However, this stereotype has contributed to the underdiagnosis and under-treatment of OA in men. According to the Arthritis Foundation, while women tend to report higher rates of OA in certain joints (such as the knees and hands), men are not immune to the disease, especially in weight-bearing joints like the hips (Arthritis Foundation, 2021).

Despite this, men are less likely to seek care for joint pain, partly due to cultural norms that discourage men from acknowledging pain or disability. Healthcare providers may also be less likely to consider OA in men, assuming that their symptoms are due to other causes such as sports injuries or overuse. This can result in delayed diagnosis and treatment, increasing the risk for joint damage and disability. Additionally, research into OA has historically focused on women, leaving gaps in understanding how the disease progresses in men and how they respond to various treatments.

Addressing this gender bias requires increasing awareness that OA affects both men and women and ensuring that men receive timely evaluation and management (Arthritis Foundation, 2021).

• Source: Arthritis Foundation. (2021). Arthritis and Men.

34. Women More Likely to be Prescribed Psychotropic Drugs

Women are prescribed psychotropic medications—such as antidepressants and anxiolytics—at significantly higher rates than men, often even when their symptoms may not fully warrant such treatment. According to data from the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), women are twice as likely to be prescribed psychotropic drugs compared to men in many countries, including the United States (OECD, 2019). Several factors contribute to this disparity.

First, healthcare providers may be more inclined to attribute women’s physical health complaints to psychological causes, leading to prescriptions for mental health medications instead of investigating underlying medical conditions.

Second, social stereotypes that characterize women as more emotionally volatile or stressed may encourage prescribers to offer quick pharmacological solutions rather than explore more comprehensive care approaches, such as therapy or lifestyle changes. There’s also evidence that women may be more proactive in seeking healthcare for emotional distress, making them more likely to receive prescriptions. While appropriate medication can be beneficial, the overreliance on psychotropics raises concerns about side effects, dependence, and masking symptoms of untreated physical conditions.

Addressing this issue requires a more balanced, patient-centered approach, ensuring thorough assessments and considering non-pharmacological interventions when appropriate (OECD, 2019).

• Source: OECD. (2019). Health at a Glance 2019: OECD Indicators.

35. Men Less Likely to Receive Palliative Care

Men are less likely than women to receive palliative care services at the end of life, often receiving more aggressive treatments instead of comfort-focused interventions. A study published in JAMA found that men are less likely to be referred to hospice or palliative care programs, even when they have similar needs for symptom management and support as women (Earle et al., 2011). This disparity is partially driven by cultural norms and gender roles that portray men as stoic and resistant to showing vulnerability, leading to fewer discussions about end-of-life preferences.

Men may be less likely to engage in advance care planning or to express a desire for palliative care, contributing to their underrepresentation in these programs. Additionally, healthcare providers may assume that men prefer aggressive treatments aimed at prolonging life rather than focusing on comfort and quality of life. This can result in men experiencing unnecessary suffering and reduced quality of life at the end of life.

Addressing this issue requires healthcare professionals to proactively engage men in conversations about palliative care options, normalize discussions around end-of-life care, and ensure that men are given the same opportunities as women to access supportive services (Earle et al., 2011).

• Source: Earle, C. C., et al. (2011). Trends in the Aggressiveness of Cancer Care Near the End of Life. JAMA, 285(24), 2981-2986.

36. Women Less Likely to Receive Kidney Transplants

Women are less likely than men to receive kidney transplants, despite similar levels of need. According to the National Kidney Foundation, women are less likely to be referred for transplant evaluation and less likely to be placed on the transplant waiting list (NKF, 2021). Several factors contribute to this gender disparity.

First, women are less likely to be perceived as optimal candidates for transplantation, partly due to misconceptions about their physical fitness or ability to tolerate surgery.

Second, women may be less assertive in advocating for themselves within the healthcare system, particularly in complex and competitive transplant evaluation processes. There is also evidence of implicit bias among healthcare providers, who may unconsciously prioritize male patients for limited donor organs. Additionally, women are more frequently the living donors rather than the recipients of kidney transplants, reflecting traditional caregiving roles that prioritize the health of others over their own.

Addressing this inequality requires greater awareness among providers about gender disparities in transplant referral and listing, as well as initiatives aimed at supporting women through the transplant evaluation process and ensuring equitable access to life-saving procedures (NKF, 2021).

• Source: National Kidney Foundation (NKF). (2021). Gender Disparities in Kidney Transplantation.

37. Men Less Likely to Report Chronic Pain

Men are significantly less likely than women to report chronic pain to healthcare providers, often resulting in underdiagnosis and inadequate pain management. According to a report by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), men underreport chronic pain conditions such as back pain, arthritis, and headaches, even when they experience them at rates comparable to or higher than women in certain cases (CDC, 2018).

Cultural norms and societal expectations that emphasize masculinity, strength, and stoicism discourage men from admitting to pain or seeking medical attention. This reluctance can also be reinforced by healthcare providers who may minimize men’s pain complaints or fail to ask about pain during routine evaluations.

Additionally, men may fear being perceived as weak or vulnerable, leading them to endure pain silently rather than seeking treatment. As a result, men often present with more advanced conditions requiring more invasive treatments when they finally seek care.

Addressing this bias requires shifting societal narratives around masculinity and encouraging men to prioritize their health and well-being. Healthcare providers can help by proactively screening for chronic pain during medical appointments and creating a supportive environment that reduces stigma around expressing pain (CDC, 2018).

• Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2018). Prevalence of Chronic Pain and High-Impact Chronic Pain Among Adults — United States, 2016.

38. Women with Diabetes Receive Less Aggressive Treatment

Women with diabetes, particularly type 2 diabetes, are less likely to receive aggressive treatment compared to men, despite having a higher relative risk for complications like cardiovascular disease.

The American Diabetes Association (ADA) has highlighted that women with diabetes are often undertreated for risk factors such as high cholesterol and hypertension, contributing to higher mortality rates from heart disease and stroke (ADA, 2001). One reason for this disparity is the historical perception of heart disease as a male condition, leading to less vigilance in managing cardiovascular risks in women.

Additionally, healthcare providers may underestimate the severity of diabetes in women or may be less likely to recommend intensive interventions such as statin therapy, aspirin use, or lifestyle changes. Women may also encounter barriers to accessing care, including socioeconomic factors and caregiving responsibilities, which can interfere with disease management.

Addressing these disparities requires healthcare providers to adhere to evidence-based guidelines that apply equally to both men and women and to ensure that women with diabetes receive comprehensive, aggressive risk reduction strategies to prevent complications (ADA, 2001).

• Source: American Diabetes Association (ADA). (2001). Cardiovascular Disease and Risk Management. Diabetes Care, 24(7), 1130-1141.

39. Male Infertility Research Lags Behind

Despite contributing to nearly half of all cases of infertility in couples, male infertility remains a neglected area of research and clinical focus. A comprehensive review published in Human Reproduction Update emphasizes that research into male reproductive health is limited, with fewer studies exploring causes, diagnostic approaches, and treatments for male infertility compared to female infertility (Barratt et al., 2017).

Historically, infertility has been viewed primarily as a female issue, partly because women bear the physical role of pregnancy. This perception has led to a disproportionate focus on evaluating and treating women, even when the male partner may be the source of the fertility problem. Furthermore, social stigmas around masculinity and virility may discourage men from seeking evaluation or participating in studies.

Clinically, there is a lack of standardized guidelines for the diagnosis and management of male infertility, and the research that does exist often lacks large-scale, high-quality data. Addressing these gaps requires increasing investment in male fertility research, developing standardized diagnostic criteria, and encouraging men to engage in reproductive health discussions.

Public health campaigns that de-stigmatize male infertility are also essential for promoting awareness and early intervention (Barratt et al., 2017).

• Source: Barratt, C. L. R., et al. (2017). The diagnosis of male infertility: An analysis of the evidence to support the development of global WHO guidance—challenges and future research opportunities. Human Reproduction Update, 23(6), 660-680.

40. Women Less Likely to Be Enrolled in Stroke Clinical Trials

Despite women having a higher lifetime risk of stroke and often worse outcomes, they are underrepresented in stroke clinical trials. A study published in Stroke journal found that women accounted for only about 37% of participants in clinical trials related to stroke, despite making up nearly half of the stroke population (Nogueira et al., 2020).

This gender imbalance limits the ability to understand sex-specific responses to stroke treatments and interventions. Historically, clinical trials have prioritized male participants due to outdated assumptions that men represent the default human subject. Concerns about the variability introduced by female hormonal cycles and potential pregnancy risks have also led to the exclusion of women from many studies.

This underrepresentation means that treatment guidelines, medications, and interventions are often developed and validated based on male physiology, which may not reflect women’s responses.

Women also tend to experience different stroke symptoms than men, such as generalized weakness, disorientation, or confusion, which can delay diagnosis and enrollment in studies. To address these disparities, there needs to be a concerted effort to include more women in stroke research, analyze sex-specific data, and adjust clinical guidelines accordingly to improve outcomes for women (Nogueira et al., 2020).

• Source: Nogueira, R. G., et al. (2020). Sex Disparities in Enrollment in Recent Randomized Controlled Trials of Acute Ischemic Stroke. Stroke, 51(6), 1792-1795.

41. Men Less Likely to Receive Osteoporosis Medications After Fractures

After experiencing an osteoporosis-related fracture, men are significantly less likely than women to receive osteoporosis medications. A study published in the Journal of Bone and Mineral Research found that men are 50% less likely than women to be prescribed bisphosphonates or other osteoporosis treatments following a fracture (Solomon et al., 2014).

This disparity is rooted in the widespread belief that osteoporosis is primarily a women’s disease, particularly one that affects postmenopausal women. As a result, healthcare providers may be less likely to consider osteoporosis as a diagnosis in men or to initiate secondary prevention strategies.

Additionally, osteoporosis screening guidelines often focus on women, leaving men out of proactive fracture prevention efforts. Men may also be less likely to seek follow-up care after fractures, either due to social norms that discourage men from focusing on bone health or from a lack of awareness of their own risk factors.

Addressing this bias requires changing clinical guidelines to include more robust screening and treatment recommendations for men, as well as educating healthcare providers about the importance of secondary prevention following fractures in both sexes (Solomon et al., 2014).

• Source: Solomon, D. H., et al. (2014). Underuse of osteoporosis medications in men with fragility fractures. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research, 29(4), 870-875.

42. Women More Likely to Be Diagnosed with “Hysteria” or Functional Neurological Disorder

For centuries, women’s unexplained neurological symptoms have often been misdiagnosed as “hysteria,” a term historically used to describe psychological disturbances without a clear medical cause.

Today, many of these diagnoses have been reclassified as Functional Neurological Disorder (FND), yet the bias persists, disproportionately affecting women. A study published in Frontiers in Psychology points out that women are overrepresented among FND patients and often face stigmatization in healthcare settings, where their symptoms may be perceived as less legitimate or exaggerated (Orrù et al., 2020). One reason for this gender bias is the continued influence of historical stereotypes that depict women as more emotionally unstable and prone to psychological illness.

As a result, women who present with complex or poorly understood neurological symptoms, such as seizures without a clear organic cause, are more likely to be labeled as having a functional disorder. This can lead to delays in thorough diagnostic testing and appropriate care.

Addressing this issue requires more research into FND, including sex-specific studies, and educating healthcare providers to avoid defaulting to psychiatric explanations without exhaustive investigation (Orrù et al., 2020).

• Source: Orrù, G., Carta, M. G., Bramanti, P., & Milardi, D. (2020). A historical overview of the role of hysteria and psychosomatic disorders in medical and psychological literature. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 3212.

43. Men Less Likely to be Treated for Osteoporosis Despite Similar Risk

Despite osteoporosis being a significant health concern for men—causing nearly 25% of all osteoporosis-related fractures—they are often underdiagnosed and undertreated for the disease. Research from the Endocrine Society emphasizes that men are less frequently screened for osteoporosis and are less likely to receive treatment, even after sustaining fractures that indicate compromised bone density (Watts et al., 2012).

A persistent misconception that osteoporosis is exclusively a women’s disease contributes to this gender bias. Additionally, clinical guidelines and public health campaigns have historically targeted women, leading to lower awareness among both men and healthcare providers about male osteoporosis risk.

Men are also less likely to seek preventative healthcare, contributing to fewer diagnoses. When men do receive treatment, it’s often delayed until after a serious fracture has occurred. This lack of proactive management results in increased morbidity and mortality for men suffering from osteoporosis-related fractures. Addressing this disparity requires increasing awareness among healthcare providers and patients alike that osteoporosis is not gender-specific.

More inclusive screening recommendations and education campaigns targeting men are necessary to ensure early detection and effective management of osteoporosis in male patients (Watts et al., 2012).

• Source: Watts, N. B., et al. (2012). Osteoporosis in men: An Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 97(6), 1802-1822.

44. Women Receive Less Aggressive Treatment for Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)

Women with traumatic brain injury (TBI) often receive less aggressive treatment and are less likely to be referred for rehabilitation services compared to men. A study published in Brain Injury highlights these disparities, noting that women are less frequently subjected to thorough diagnostic evaluations such as CT scans or MRI imaging following head trauma (Farace & Alves, 2003). This gender bias stems from assumptions that women’s symptoms may be less severe or more psychologically based, leading clinicians to underestimate the extent of their injuries.

Additionally, women may present with different post-injury symptoms than men—such as emotional dysregulation, fatigue, or headaches—which can be misinterpreted as stress or mental health issues rather than indicators of brain injury. As a result, women often receive less intensive follow-up care and rehabilitation, contributing to poorer long-term outcomes.

Historically, TBI research has focused primarily on male populations, leaving gaps in understanding how TBI affects women differently. Addressing this bias requires more inclusive research and greater clinician awareness of sex-specific TBI presentations to ensure that women receive equitable evaluation, treatment, and rehabilitation services (Farace & Alves, 2003).

• Source: Farace, E., & Alves, W. M. (2003). Do women fare worse? A metaanalysis of gender differences in traumatic brain injury outcome. Brain Injury, 17(9), 769-778.

45. Male Infertility Often Overlooked in Couples’ Fertility Evaluations

Male infertility plays a role in nearly 50% of infertility cases among couples, yet the focus of fertility assessments typically falls on women. Even when male factors are suspected, diagnostic evaluations for men are often less thorough and delayed. A study published in Human Reproduction emphasizes that women frequently undergo invasive testing and treatments before male infertility is adequately considered (Agarwal et al., 2015).

This gender bias stems from historical assumptions that infertility is primarily a “female problem.” Societal stigma surrounding male infertility—often viewed as a challenge to masculinity—can further discourage men from undergoing evaluation or discussing reproductive health openly. Additionally, male infertility research has been underfunded, leading to fewer diagnostic tools and treatment options for men. In clinical practice, semen analysis may be the only test performed, without further investigation into hormonal, genetic, or lifestyle factors contributing to infertility.

This narrow focus can delay diagnosis and appropriate interventions. Addressing this bias requires greater emphasis on male fertility in both research and clinical practice, encouraging comprehensive evaluations for men and normalizing discussions around male reproductive health (Agarwal et al., 2015).

• Source: Agarwal, A., Mulgund, A., Hamada, A., & Chyatte, M. R. (2015). A unique view on male infertility around the globe. Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology, 13(1), 37.

46. Women Less Likely to Receive Kidney Dialysis at Optimal Times

Women with end-stage renal disease (ESRD) are less likely to initiate dialysis in a timely manner compared to men, often beginning treatment later and with poorer kidney function. According to a study published in the Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology, women are more likely to experience delays in referral to nephrologists, contributing to later initiation of dialysis and worse outcomes (Robinson et al., 2008).

This gender disparity can be attributed to several factors. First, women’s symptoms of kidney disease, such as fatigue and fluid retention, may be dismissed or attributed to less serious health conditions, delaying diagnosis and specialist referral. Additionally, women are often less aggressive in pursuing treatment for themselves, frequently prioritizing family or caregiving responsibilities over their own healthcare needs.

There is also evidence that healthcare providers may unconsciously perceive women as less suitable candidates for aggressive treatments like dialysis or transplants, further delaying intervention. These delays can lead to more severe complications, higher mortality rates, and reduced quality of life. To address this bias, healthcare providers must ensure timely referrals and education for all patients, with particular attention to gender disparities in ESRD management (Robinson et al., 2008).

• Source: Robinson, B. M., et al. (2008). Racial and ethnic disparities in end-stage renal disease in the United States: The role of dialysis initiation and modality choice. Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology, 3(3), 736-744.

47. Men’s Depression Often Goes Undiagnosed Due to “Masked” Symptoms

Men often experience depression differently from women, exhibiting symptoms like anger, irritability, risk-taking, and substance abuse rather than the sadness and withdrawal typically associated with the disorder.

As a result, their depression frequently goes undiagnosed. A study published in JAMA Psychiatry found that when male-specific symptoms were included in depression screening tools, the prevalence of depression in men equaled or even surpassed that in women (Martin et al., 2013). Traditional diagnostic criteria for depression emphasize symptoms more commonly observed in women, leading healthcare providers to overlook atypical presentations in men.

Societal norms and cultural expectations that discourage men from showing vulnerability or emotional distress further compound the problem, as men are less likely to report feelings of sadness or to seek mental health support. Even when they do seek help, providers may misattribute men’s symptoms to personality traits or situational stress rather than recognizing them as indicators of clinical depression.

To improve detection and treatment, screening tools must account for gender differences in symptom expression, and mental health professionals must be trained to recognize how depression manifests uniquely in men (Martin et al., 2013).

• Source: Martin, L. A., Neighbors, H. W., & Griffith, D. M. (2013). The experience of symptoms of depression in men vs. women: Analysis of the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. JAMA Psychiatry, 70(10), 1100-1106.

48. Women Less Likely to Receive Guideline-Recommended Care After Heart Attack

Women who suffer a heart attack are less likely than men to receive guideline-recommended treatments, such as aspirin, statins, and timely revascularization procedures. A study published in the European Heart Journal found that women were significantly less likely to receive evidence-based care after myocardial infarction, contributing to higher mortality rates (Steg et al., 2012). Several factors contribute to this disparity.

First, women’s symptoms of heart attack often differ from men’s, presenting with atypical signs like nausea, fatigue, and jaw pain rather than the classic chest pain, which can lead to delays in diagnosis and treatment. Additionally, historical perceptions that heart disease is primarily a male issue have led to a lack of awareness among both patients and healthcare providers about the risks women face. Implicit bias may also lead providers to underestimate women’s risk or perceive them as less appropriate candidates for aggressive treatments like angioplasty.

To address this inequality, medical professionals must be educated about the unique presentation of heart disease in women, and systems should be put in place to ensure equitable access to guideline-recommended therapies for both sexes (Steg et al., 2012).

• Source: Steg, P. G., et al. (2012). One-year mortality and predictors of mortality in patients hospitalized for acute coronary syndromes: Results from the EPICOR registry. European Heart Journal, 33(25), 3105-3116.

50. Women Experience More Adverse Drug Reactions (ADRs) Due to Dosing Based on Male Bodies

Women are more likely to experience adverse drug reactions (ADRs), largely because many medications are dosed based on studies conducted predominantly in male participants. According to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), women experience nearly twice as many ADRs as men, often because clinical trials have historically excluded female participants or failed to analyze data by sex (FDA, 2014).

Biological differences between men and women—such as body fat composition, hormonal fluctuations, and enzyme activity—affect how drugs are absorbed, distributed, metabolized, and excreted. For example, women clear certain drugs like zolpidem (Ambien) more slowly than men, leading to higher blood levels and increased side effects such as next-day drowsiness and impaired driving. Despite these known differences, drug dosing recommendations are often not adjusted for sex, putting women at higher risk for harmful side effects.

Addressing this issue requires the inclusion of adequate numbers of women in clinical trials, sex-based analysis of drug data, and regulatory guidelines that enforce sex-specific dosing recommendations. Greater awareness of these differences will lead to safer and more effective pharmacotherapy for both sexes (FDA, 2014).

• Source: U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). (2014). Drug Safety Communication: FDA approves new label changes and dosing for zolpidem products and a recommendation to avoid driving the day after using Ambien CR.